Sociological theories of interpersonal violence Essay Example

Sociological theories of interpersonal violence Paper Violence can mean many different things to different people. The term violence can be used precisely or vaguely and can take many different forms including physical, sexual, verbal, psychological, emotional, social, spatial and financial abuse. This makes it very difficult to find a definition of violence that works for all situations and at all times. Therefore violence, what is meant by violence, and whether there is a notion of violence at all, are historically, socially and culturally constructed (Hearn 1998: 15). What is named as violent in one situation may not be named as violent in another; therefore violence is both historically and culturally specific. There are many different theories as to why men are more violent than women. These theories include biological theories, which focus on hormonal patterns and aggression; psychological theories, which focus on personality types and disorders; psychoanalysis, which looks at projection and displacement and sociological theories, which focus on concepts grounded in interpersonal, collective, institutional, structural or societal processes (Hearn 1998: 17). Biological theories propose that women are naturally less violent than men. Maccoby and Jacklin (1975) describe how women display aggression and interpersonal responses which are different to that of men, which mean that situations are usually resolved without incurring violent behaviour. Biological theories of how violence naturally occurs rely on explanations of differences between male and female chromosomes, hormones, genetics and territoriality. During research in the 1960s biologists found a number of genetic abnormalities in the cells of humans. As Ainsworth (2000) describes, one of these abnormalities was a condition which was labelled XYY. The name came from the discovery that a small proportion of males had an extra Y chromosome (males normally have one X and one Y chromosome, hence XY). This meant that the men with XYY had double male chromosomes, an abnormality which became nicknamed the supermale syndrome. The syndrome became associated with violent crime as it was claimed that these men were twice as aggressive and violent than the average male (Price et al. 1966 and Jarvik et al. 1973 Cited in Ainsworth 2000). However, later research showed that while XYY males were more likely to be involved with crime they were not necessarily more likely to be involved with specifically violent crimes (Witken at al. 1976 Cited in Ainsworth 2000). We will write a custom essay sample on Sociological theories of interpersonal violence specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Sociological theories of interpersonal violence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Sociological theories of interpersonal violence specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Some biologists suggest that human aggression is hereditary. As Ainsworth (2000) describes, one way of examining this claim is through the studies of twins. Identical twins have identical genetic make-up, so if aggression is hereditary then both twins should, in theory, display identical levels of aggression. However from studies carried out of identical twins that are brought up in different environments it has been shown that they often display different levels off aggression and therefore theorists have suggested that levels of aggression are much more closely related to environment rather than genetic make-up. Biological explanations are highly criticised for neglecting ideas of power, cultural and historical relativity and morality. Psychological explanations, on the other hand, locate explanation in mind, mental processs that transcend sex/gender or nature of the male of masculine psyche (Hearn 1998: 20). However, both biological and psychological explanations are criticised because they dont address interrelations of body and society, and of body, mind and society. (Hearn 1998: 20). This leads us to the psychoanalytical explanations of violence which include intrapsychic conflict, personality disorders, denial mechanisms, developmental deficiencies/impaired ego, narcissism, traumatic childhood, machoism (Dankwort 1992-3 cited in Hearn 1998: 21). Through the psychoanalytical perspective it is not violence that is the focus of attention, but instead the dynamics of violence which are more closely considered. Hearn (1998) describes how Freudian and Neo-freudian theorists believe that violence is internally driven, in other words violence is located inside a person. Freud describes how exaggerated masculinities cause men to act violently to compensate for their fears of femininity and of women taking control. Chodorow (1978 cited in Hearn 1998) goes on to explain how the development of a rigid ego is created by men to cope with separation from their mother and the absence of their father. This rigid ego derives from notions of how to be a man which involves the idea of the need to be aggressive in order to show masculinity. However psychoanalytical theories are criticised for placing too much blame on the victim. For example, in the case of domestic violence it is suggested that women let it happen because of treatment they received as children. Because of this psychoanalytical theories are often labelled as not feminist or antiwoman. (Hearn 1998: 21). Despite this, psychoanalytical explanations remain very powerful and influential in the social sciences, although more socially located theories have become increasingly significant. Socially located theories suggest then it is men with social dispositions, not psychological dispositions who are prone to violence (Hearn 1998). There are various socially located theories which include the Social Learning Theory, Socialization and Cognitive-Behavioural Analysis. All of these are based on the same basic idea that mens violence is behaviour which men learn. Although psychoanalytical theories suggest that observing other people committing violence or even expressing ones anger in a non-violent way may actually reduce violence in a person, this is not the case in sociological explanations where it is believed that violence is externally derived. Sociologists argue that violent behaviour can be closely related to an individuals socialization, namely through learning theories. Jones (2000) describes how there is a possibility that the expression of some violent behaviour is causally connected to either observation or experience of aggression. He discusses how human behaviour is based on learned experiences rather than instinct or some other innate characteristic (Jones 2000: 49). One of the best-known sociological theories of socialization is Sutherlands theory of differential association (Sutherland 1947 cited in Jones 2000). He argues that cultural, in this case delinquent, behaviour is learnt through interaction with others. Most people come into contact with both law-breaking people and law-abiding people, but it is when a person has more contact with the law-breakers that they become delinquent. Ray (2000 cited in Hearn 1998) describes how the crisis of masculinity could also be a causal factor of male violence. The crisis of masculinity refers to, amongst other things, increasing unemployment combined with increasing womens equality. Due to unemployment young men or lads begin spending more time on the street, (they dont want to go home as they believe that home is the womans place) and so have more chance to commit crime. Real manhood is based on devotion to group membership, particularly that of street gangs. These gangs or subcultures (Hearn 1998: 30) use violence as a way of confirming status in street culture and so encourage young men to act aggressively and violently. Sutherlands theory of differential association (1947 cited in Jones 2000) becomes clear in Rays (2000 cited in Hearn 1998) connection between real manhood and male violence; a person becomes violent because of stronger exposure to people who commit violence than those who dont, through association with other violent males on the streets. The social learning theory outlines the idea that violence is observed and then reproduced or imitated and focuses on past experiences, especially from childhood (Hearn 1998). According to social learning theorists early experiences in the childhood form a persons personality, basically if a child witnesss a parent being violent they are more likely to be violent themselves, even if it does not become obvious until later in their adult life. However social learning theorists also accept that if children witness violence being used as a punishment then they are less likely to copy, and therefore will be deterred from violence (Bandura 1973; 1977). Children develop learned patterns of violence through intergenerational relations (Hearn 1998; Hoffman et al 1994; Ainsworth 2000). However the exact process of learning violence is often less clear and there is a divide between theorists who believe that individuals learn through cognitive structuring, personality formation, behavioural reinforcement and modelling (Jones 2000; Hearn 1998). Cognitive-behavioural analysis looks at particular forms of learning that have taken place for particular individuals and how reproduction of violence occurs through intergenerational learning and socialization. Goldstein (1989:124 cited in Hearn 1998) identifies the three main areas in which aggression is learned: in the home, school and the mass media. He theorises that learning is either direct through individual practice of aggression or indirect through observation of people being rewarded for aggressive behaviour. Hotaling and Sugarman (1986) suggest that men who are violent to their wives were traumatized as children, either through being abused themselves or through witnessing abuse of their mother by their father, again focusing on the intergenerational production of violence. Bandura (1973; 1977), a major proponent of Social Learning Theory, combined aspects of behaviourism and cognitive psychology. He argued that people learn their behaviours not only through the idea of rewards and punishments achieved through certain types of behaviour but also through observing other peoples actions. By doing this individuals can learn to anticipate the effectiveness of particular courses of action in achieving desired goals (Jones 2000: 51; Hoffman at al 1994). To reinforce his theory Bandura conducted an experiment involving a Bobo doll (Bandura 1973; 1977). In this experiment, he had some children witness an adult aggressively attacking a plastic clown called the Bobo doll. The children watched a video where a model aggressively beat up a doll. In order to frustrate the children, after the video they were placed in a room with attractive toys, but they could not touch them. Then the children who had watched the video and some other children who had not witnessed the violence, were led to another room where there were identical toys to those used in the Bobo video. Bandura found that the children exposed to the aggressive model were more likely to act in physically aggressive ways than those who were not exposed to the aggressive model (Ainsworth 2000; Bandura 1973; Bandura 1977; Hoffman et al 1994; Jones 2000). However there are also many criticisms of these theories as the exact process of how social learning or socialization takes place is often unclear and often represent a very simple explanation of how violence happens and is reproduced. Hearn (1998: 27) also claims that there is an under theorization of gender amongst the socially located theories. Certain questions such as why dont girls copy violence like boys do? and why do boys understand and imitate the violence of men but not the violation of women? are extremely important issues which are not addressed in these explanations of male violence. Another set of theories which attempts to explain why men are more violent than women are reactive theories, which can be either psychological or sociological in focus. Reactive theories are based on the idea that violence is a response to external conditions, men use violence when their goals are blocked and non-violent alternatives are ineffective (Hearn 1998). The stress theory suggests that certain factors such as low income, unemployment, part time employment and a large number of children are more likely to cause stress to men which can make them more prone to violence. Despite this, it would be unfair to isolate stress as a causal factor of violence because it is a constant feature of everyday life which everyone, both men and women, have to deal with. Another criticism of this theory is that if stress is a single causal factor of violence then why is it mainly men and not women whoare violent? (Hearn 1998). Reactive theories also look at the abuse of alcohol as an exernal factor, and how this can cause men to act violently. However as Horsfall (1991) outlines alcohol cannot be seen as a direct cause of violence. She concludes that if alcohol is a causal factor of violence, why do some men react violoently when others do not and why does the social structuring of boys and men bring them up to think that in order to feel like a manyou must drink with the boys, often to excess. The construction of gender is a very useful starting point to understand why men are more violent than women. As Moore (1994) writes, discourses about gender construct women and men as different sorts of persons. Discourse that is used to describe men is active; men are portrayed as aggressive, thrusting and powerful (Moore 1994: 138). Whereas discourse that describes women is usually passive; women are portrayed as essentially powerless, submissive and receptive (Moore 1994: 138). However, these constructions actually only have the most peripheral relation to the behaviours of individual women and men. Moore (1994) goes onto describe how discourses engender women and men as persons who are defined by difference(Moore 1994: 139). They produce discursive effects which produce gender difference, therefore producing symbolic or culturally constructed categories of women and men as different from each other. The discourse used to conceptualize violence is also very important as it often tends to take the focus, blame and responsibility away from the man who commits the violence and pushes it towards the family. Phrases such as domestic violence, conjugal violence, marital violence and family violence are often used and although it is important to acknowledge the relational nature of gender and relational context of violence it is equally important not to reduce violence to the product of the relationship' (Hearn 1998: 28). So far we have identified that, according to socially located theories, violence is produced and reproduced through learning, socialization, modelling and imitation, and this can be conceptualized as producing an environment of violence which operates over time (Hearn 1998: 29), for example intergenerational violence. Cultural theorists go on to discuss how these environments can be thought of as a culture with norms and values, or a system with systematic characteristics. They shift the focus away from the individual to take into consideration social relations and raise important issues such as cycles of violence, whereby the victimiser may once have been the victim themselves (Geffner 1989: 107). Multi causal explanations of violence are very important and claim that violence is a result of not just one individual force, but numerous factors working together. Multi causal theorists bring all, or at least some, of the theories I have already discussed together. Edleson et al (1985) put forward a multicausal explanation where they combine: ideas of violence in the mans family origin from the social learning theory; personal characteristics, such as an individuals attitudes and ideas towards violence taken from the psychoanalytical approach; the use of substances as an external force from the reactive theory; and they also condsider the context of violence by looking at demographic and relationship variables and specific violent events from a mans past.

DNA Replication essays

DNA Replication essays Where did we come from? How did we emerge from the Earth? Why do twins look so alike? The answers to these questions lay in the scientific field of molecular genetics. More specifically, these answers can be answered in the study of DNA. DNA, the blueprint for life, determines what color hair and eyes we have. In this essay, we will observe how DNA replicates itself, the process making proteins, and gene regulation. DNA must duplicate itself in order to form complete copies of the genetic material. DNA replication is a complex task. DNA strands and anti parallel. First, helicase uncoils DNA and cleaves into a replication fork the DNA strand into two strands that are held stable apart by single-strand protein. RNA primase is used to add the first nucleotides because polymerase can only add to growing strands. Because DNA is anti-parallel, the two strands are different. There is a lead strand and a lagging strand. Polymerase can only add in the corresponding nucleotides in a 5-3 direction so only the leading end is constructed continuously. The lagging strand is in a 3-5 direction and must require Okazaki fragments to attach to the corresponding code and be joined by DNA ligase so that the lagging strand becomes an identical DNA strand like the leading strand. The results are 2 identical DNA strands that came from the original parent strand. This process is semiconservative because the two resu lting strands contain parts of the old strand. The old strands are split and the new base pairs are added to the leading and lagging such that the original strand becomes part of the two new DNA strands. DNA contains all our genetic information which tells who we are and has blueprints for our functions. However, like money, DNA isnt worth anything unless you use it to create mRNA which creates proteins that run our life. The creation of proteins occurs in two steps: transcription and tr ...

Robert Fultons Steamboat Clermont

Robert Fulton's Steamboat Clermont Robert Fultons steamboat the Clermont was undoubtedly the pioneer of practical steamboats. In 1801, Robert Fulton partnered with Robert Livingston to build the Clermont. Livingston had received a monopoly on steam navigation on the rivers of New York State for twenty years, provided that he produced a steam-powered vessel able to travel four miles an hour. Construction of the Clermont Robert Fulton arrived at New York in 1806 and began the construction of the Clermont, named after Robert Livingstons estate on the Hudson river. The building was done on the East River in New York City. However, the Clermont was then the butt of jokes of passersby, who nicknamed it Fultons Folly. Launch of the Clermont On Monday, August 17, 1807, the first voyage of the Clermont was begun. Carrying a party of invited guests, the Clermont steamed off at one oclock. Pine wood was the fuel. At one oclock Tuesday the boat arrived at Clermont, 110 miles from New York City. After spending the night at Clermont, the voyage was resumed on Wednesday. Albany, forty miles away, was reached in eight hours, making a record of 150 miles in thirty-two hours. Returning to New York City, the distance was covered in thirty hours. The steamboat Clermont was a success. The boat was then laid up for two weeks while the cabins were built, a roof built over the engine, and coverings placed over the paddle-wheels to catch the water spray. Then the Clermont began making regular trips to Albany, carrying sometimes a hundred passengers, making the round trip every four days and continued until floating ice marked the break for winter. Clermont Builder - Robert Fulton Robert Fulton was one of the most important figures in early American technology. Before his steamboat Clermont first ascended the Hudson River in 1807, he worked for years in England and France on industrial development, especially inland navigation and the cutting of canals, and built a submarine.

World History since 1945 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

World History since 1945 - Essay Example The doctrine also promised to help Turkey and Greece economically and through military actions against the communists this after Britain announced that they would be withdrawing their support. These countries were to receive $400,000,000 aid. The doctrine contents were justified by the need to help free people in their fight against totalitarian rule which would undermine international peace, and as a result affect the state of security in the United States (Jones 36). The National Security Council Paper NSC-68 was a top secret report meant to confront the treat the hostile design of the Soviet Union had on the USA. The report banned the regeneration of US isolationism arguing that it will result in Soviet Union supremacy of Eurasia, and leave the USA stranded on the western hemisphere, away from its allies and assets need to push away Soviet infringement. Additionally, the report ruled out a deterrent strike against the Soviet Union since it will result in tit-for-tat action that would be devastating to Western Europe. The report also paved way for possible future negotiations with the Soviet Union. In its conclusion, the paper called for massive development of both conventional and nuclear arm in order to prevent the Soviet Union. However, this could only be achieved through increased taxes as well as the reduction of expenditure. The report was widely criticized with the critics arguing that USA already had a significant military edge over the Soviet Union. However, in June 1950 the recommendations were adopted as policy (Jones 72). When Mao took over the leadership of China in 1949, the country was witnessing a lot of problems. For instance, the country had fewer industries, unemployment levels were high, food shortages coupled with increased population. In 1949, 85 percent of chinas population were peasants. Mao

Review on Promotional Material Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words

Review on Promotional Material - Essay Example The project envisages stage-wise development of Cassava crop cultivation, storage and marketing, and ultimately converting to bio-ethanol for international markets by establishing production facility locally. The project aims to introduce bio-fuel processing as a new type of industry in PNG by commercialising the Cassava crop as the main feedstock for the bio-fuel production, and to establish a base for manufacturing of raw ethanol for export to South Korea. The project requires acquisition of land for development of large scale Cassava plantations where Cassava tubers will be harvested, cut into pellets, dried and used as raw materials to produce bio-ethanol or bio-fuel as well as other by products. The project is fully supported by the government of PNG. A memorandum of agreement (MOA) was signed in 2005 between the State and the developer, Changhae International Cooperation of Korea. The State’s agencies secured their participation and monitoring authority through a Public/Private Partnership arrangement. As custodians, the government agencies ensure adherence to compliance issues. The PNG government sees this as an important agro-economy project. Bio-fuels can play a stimulating role in modernizing the domestic agricultural production and marketing. Production of bio-fuel from crops such as Cassava helps local farmers to increase farming revenues or expand the productive capacity of existing land. (i) Development of large-scale cassava estates, encouraging local farmers to form cooperative groups and take part in the company’s out-grower program. The estates will occupy a total land area of between 6,000 to 20,000 hectares (ha) of either State or private lands. Small scale plantations or out-growers development will cover any land below 6,000 hectares. The out-growers scheme will be in three categories – (a) contracted out-growers with a minimum of 5,000 ha land (b) non-contracted out-growers with 1-49 ha land and

ESL learners feel anxious when doing reading comprehension tests Essay Example for Free

ESL learners feel anxious when doing reading comprehension tests Essay This paper will explore in depth all the implications of the claim that ESL learners feel anxious when doing reading comprehension tests. First of all, the psychological and social causes of anxiety in ESL speakers during reading comprehension assignments will be explored and analyzed. Secondly, the level of anxiety will be assessed. Finally, the paper will suggest several ways to reduce negative feeling associated with performing reading comprehension tests by ESL speakers. Psychological causes of anxiety in ESL students partially mirror the experience of any other school related anxiety. Students are unsure of their abilities under the conditions of internal (i. e. a desire for self-affirmation) and external (i. e. a desire to please parents) pressure. Presently, students feel an incredible pressure to achieve and be at the top of their class, since the realization that school grades determine their future comes very early. Therefore, the joy of learning is often transformed into a struggle to excel (DeNoon, 2007). High expectations and competitive environment contribute greatly to the experience of anxiety and even panic. As concerns the severity of anxiety experienced by ESL speakers, it might range from slight psychological discomfort to serious physical symptoms. For example, short-term memory loss might be the result of extreme anxiety (the feeling of suddenly ‘remembering’ the correct answer immediately after turning in the test). Physical expressions of anxiety may include rapid pulse, a feeling of breathlessness, trembling, sweaty palms, dry mouth, chest pains, digestive problems such as nausea or diarrhea, loss of appetite, headache, sleeplessness, and stomach ache (BUPAs Health Information Team, 2004). Anxiety may also result in undesirable social consequences, such as loss of trust between parents and students, since the latter sometimes tend to conceal the difficulties they encounter, as well as test results. Such behavior eventually results in unfavorable family atmosphere. The practical values of this research lies in the field of practices and methods aimed at eliminating the causes of anxiety and helping students benefit fully from the learning process. Negative thoughts about possible failure discourage active learning and, taken to extreme, can produce a generally devastating effect on personality development. Furthermore, anxiety during the testing process can distort result, since students who are able to control their emotions better will tend to get higher score, despite the fact that their knowledge might be less complete as compared to students who suffer from extreme anxiety. Together with exercises aimed at increasing students’ self-confidence, relaxation exercises might be very helpful for those who suffer from anxiety. It is also of paramount importance to teach students to plan their time for taking the test so that they would not feel lost and experience a state of panic. The methods of research will be qualitative and will include questionnaires and interviews. At one hand, questionnaires will help to gather statistically significant data and understand the pervasiveness of the problem. From another perspective, interviews will help to research the problem in depth by analyzing students’ perceptions, emotions, and experiences. Therefore, the combination of these research methods will provide the most accurate picture of anxiety in ESL speakers during reading comprehension tests.

Comparing and Contrasting Hughess Mother to Son and Wilburs The Write

Comparing and Contrasting Hughes's Mother to Son and Wilbur's The Writer Whether life is a steep climb up a shaky stairway or a challenging voyage over rough seas, a parent hopes a child will persevere to the end. In Langston Hughes's poem "Mother to Son" and in Richard Wilbur's poem "The Writer," the poets use the voice of a parent considering a child's future, and both use imagery of struggle and survival to suggest what lies ahead for the child. Although the point of view, context, and language of the two poems differ significantly, the message is the same: a parent wants a good life for his or her child, but knows that many obstacles can block the way. While Hughes and Wilbur share a similar message in their poems, their points of view are very different. Hughes uses a first-person narrator, a mother speaking directly to her son. The title of the poem itself, "Mother to Son," states this point of view. The reader is listening in on a one-on-one conversation. The opening line introduces the mother's monologue: "Well, son, I'll tell you." The point of view stays consistent as the mother describes what life's stairway has been like for her: "Life for me ain't been no crystal stair" (2 and 20), and urges her son to do as she has done: "I'se still climbin'" (19). She addresses her son directly throughout the poem, calling him "son" (1), "boy" (14), and "honey" (18). The poem is entirely in the mother's speaking voice, with the informalities of someone speaking privately to a close relative and the grammatical errors of someone who is probably not well educated. Richard Wilbur's poem is also written in the first person, but the narrator does not address his daughter directly until the final stanza (31-33). The first thir... ...s her message across in twenty short, simple lines. Both "Mother to Son" and "The Writer" offer a parent's sincere message to a child. However, the poems' points of view, contexts, and language show two parents who have traveled very different paths before offering their messages. The reader sees that parents' hopes and concerns for a child are universal, even though their expression differs. Works Cited Bixler, Frances. Richard Wilbur: A Reference Guide. Boston: G.K. Hall 1991 Hughes, Langston. "Mother to Son." Literature and Ourselves: A Thematic Introduction for Readers and Writers. Eds. Gloria Mason Henderson, Bill Day, and Sandra Stevenson Waller. 4th ed. New York: Longman, 2003. Wilbur, Richard. Responses. Prose Pieces: 1953–1976. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1976 – New and Collected Poems. New York: Harcourt Brace Jovanovich 1988

Hercules And The Nemean Lion History Essay

Olympia, an active sanctuary during the Geometric period, has besides yielded a figure of failed castings from the nearby workshops where the dedications were produced. The figurines were cast solid by the lost-wax procedure: wax was cut, rolled, pinched, and tooled ; the wax organic structure parts were stuck together ; the ensuing theoretical account was invested with a clay mold ; the mold was baked to fire out the wax ; and bronze was poured into the mold to replace the wax. The base was normally cast along with the statuette. During the seventh century BCE, generic standing work forces became more specific representations of ram- or calf-bearers, of young persons, and of striding assailing Gods, types which continued to be made through the Archaic period. Although bronze figurines were produced long before large-scale bronzes were cast, sphyrelaton was an early technique used to do some larger images. Harmonizing to the 2nd-century ad traveler Pausanias ( 3. 17. 6 ) , the procedure involved hammering sheets of metal into the form of a figure and concentrating them together over a solid nucleus. Merely a few such images survive-the best known are a male ( height 0.8 m/2 foot 5 in ) and a brace of much smaller females ( height 0.4 m/1 foot 4 in ) from a little sanctuary at Dreros in Crete ( Crete, Heraklion Mus. ) . Stiffly frontal cylindrical standing figures, they are normally dated to the late eighth century or the early seventh century BCE. The Orientalizing period of the seventh century BCE was a period during which the Greeks imported metal objects, fabrics, tusks, and thoughts from Phoenicia, Syria, Phrygia, and Urartu. The manners and topics of their ain plants were affected, and six or more alien gryphons ‘ caputs with inlaid eyes are added to the shoulders of bronze caldrons that served as dedications, some of the caldrons standing more than 3 m ( 10 foot ) tall. The Greeks besides traded with Egypt, where they saw large-scale statuary in rock and in bronze. Egypt had a long-established sculptural tradition of blocklike, frontal figures with carefully formulated proportions. By the center of the seventh century, the Greeks had brought place these ‘new ‘ thoughts, every bit good as the cognition of large-scale bronze-casting and stonecarving methods. The sculptures that were produced in 7th-century Greece are derived from the Egyptian tradition, both stylistically and technically, but they are adapted to suit the demands of Greek spiritual dedications. The manner associated with the seventh century is called ‘Daedalic ‘ , after the legendary artist/craftsman Daedalus. A typical illustration is the standing marble Persephone ( immature adult female ) dedicated by Nicander on the island of Delos ( Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) . Stiffly frontlet, she has orderly triangular subdivisions of hair arranged symmetrically on either side of a triangular face, wide shoulders, a triangular trunk, a tight but however unrevealing belted adventitia, hands attached to the sides, and pess emerging from beneath an upward-curving hem. From the side, the figure ‘s defects become clear: she is unnaturalistically vertical, and thin and planklike in contour. Two likewise formulaic adult females were carved in the ulterior seventh century BCE as alleviation on the bottom of a limestone lintel-block at Prinias in Crete, and two 3-dimensional adult females are seated atop either terminal of the same header ( Crete, Heraklion Mus. ; tallness o f sitting adult females c.0.82 m/2 foot 8 in ) . The limestone temple of Artemis on Corfu ( c. 590 – 580 BCE ) , constructed at the beginning of the Archaic period in Greece, is the earliest Grecian temple known to hold been built wholly of rock with rock pedimental sculptures ( Corfu Mus. ) . The job of how to suit figures into the triangular infinite was addressed by changing the graduated table: bantam figures of dead giants lie with their caputs in the corners of the West pediment ; so come two larger braces dwelling of Gods assailing giants ; so two giant spotted jaguars, couchant ; and, in the Centre, a monstrous Medusa ( height 2.85 m/9 foot 9 in ) overlaps the extremum of the pediment, her immense face and pouching torso frontlet, her weaponries and legs in profile. Her vigorous place, with one articulatio genus down and one up, coupled with the wings on her mortise joints, is exemplifying of flight ; her immense eyes and drooping lingua are apotropaic. The Gorgon is flanked by her bantam kids Chrysaor and Pegasus, b orn at the minute of her decease ; used here, like the giants in the corners of the pediments, to arouse a narrative. Archaic bronze figurines have been found in peculiarly big Numberss in Olympia, Athens, Delphi, Dodona, and Samos. Traditionally, they have been grouped harmonizing to the theory that there were assorted regional Centres of production, in Attica, Aegina, Corinth, Sicyon, Argos, Sparta, Arcadia, Magna Graecia, and east Greece. These designations are by and large based upon manner, non upon find-spots. Some of the most sophisticated Archaic bronze figurines have been found at the Heraion ( sanctuary of Hera ) on Samos, and they were likely made in the immediate locality of that site. These bronzes support the grounds of the ancient literary testimonia which ascribe legendary accomplishments and accomplishments in projecting techniques to the Samian bronzeworkers Rhoicus and Theodorus ( see Pausanias 8. 14. 8 ; 9. 41. 1 ; 10. 38. 6 ) . The Samians were among the most active of the Grecian bargainers with Egypt. A three-times-life-size marble kouros from the Heraion, dating to the early Archaic period, c.580/70 BCE, attests to the impact of that contact ( Samos, Arch. Mus. ) . Hundreds of images of korai and kouroi ( immature work forces ) , some in bronze but most of them painted rock, were erected to function as votive offerings or as sedate markers. The colossal Sounion Kouros ( Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) is a good illustration of the early Archaic manner. Nude, blocklike, and frontal, he stands over 3 m ( 10ft ) in tallness, one leg extended in front of the other, but both pess rest level on the land, and neither hips nor shoulders are affected by his stance. His custodies are clenched against his thighs, though on later kouroi the weaponries may be extended forwards from the cubituss. Anatomical inside informations are aggressively articulated, but they are governed by the rule of surface design. A big three-dimensional caput is decorated with luxuriant additive item, including rows of conventionalized coils, volute-like ears, and immense bulging eyes. The shoulder blades, epigastric arch, and patellas serve as cosmetic surface design on an otherwise m onolithic figure which retains the features of the quadrilateral block of marble from which the image was carved. The 6th-century Persephone wears a long frock, long hair, and ever has her pess together, but as the Archaic period progresses, her garments, symmetrically placed long locks of hair, and jewelry become more luxuriant. There is much grounds of aureate and brilliantly painted cosmetic inside informations. By the last one-fourth of the sixth century, the Doric peplus, a heavy woolen, swimmingly hanging belted garment, was replaced by the lightweight frilly Ionian chiton, with its greater possibilities for the add-on of cascading hems, of decoration, and of luxuriant surface forms. Throughout the century, the ‘Archaic smiling ‘ , the oral cavity with overturned corners, finely creased, is the changeless expression used on all statues, male and female alike. The Siphnian Treasury at Delphi, closely dated to between 530 and 520 BCE was originally instead like a brilliantly painted and flamboyant jewel-box ( Delphi Mus. ) . The island-dwellers ‘ expensive, carefully sited, and to a great extent sculpted dedication, made in the Ionic manner, had two caryatids ( female back uping figures ) , painted and embellished with bronze, alternatively of columns on the fa & A ; ccedil ; ade, and alleviation sculptures in both pediment and friezes. In the pediment, Hercules tries to wrest the Delphic tripod from Apollo ; in the frieze, complex engagement figures with their names inscribed represent scenes from the Trojan War, seated Gods, and a conflict between Gods and giants. The carven metopes on the Athenian Treasury, besides at Delphi ( c. 490 – 480 BCE ; Delphi Mus. ) , focal point on the labor of Theseus and of Hercules, and on the conflict between Greeks and Amazons. The trophies erected outside the simple Doric exchequer completed the memorial to triumph over the Iranis at the conflict of Marathon. Repeat is no more unusual in Grecian sculpture than it is in Grecian vase picture. An early 6th-century Tanagran grave stele for Dermys and Cittylus ( Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ; tallness of young persons 1.47 m/4ft 10 in ) , made of limestone carved in high alleviation, shows two standing males in airss that are mirror images of one another. Two monolithic kouroi dedicated at Delphi c. 580 BCE, traditionally but likely falsely identified as Cleobis and Biton of Argos, are practically indistinguishable ( Delphi Mus. ; tallness of each 1.97 m/6 foot 6 in ) . Three Samian korai lined up on a statue-base as portion of a household dedication are basically indistinguishable in airs and in visual aspect. Lost-wax casting is a generative procedure, and the Greeks used it to do large-scale bronzes from the Archaic period onwards. This method was good suited to sculpture that was stylistically insistent, limited to standing, striding, or seated figures that served entirely spiritual maps. In other words, although bronze has a far greater tensile strength than does lapidate, its flexibleness was non exploited, for large-scale bronze statues of the sixth century did non divert from the rigorous expressions dictated by Archaic stylistic convention. Therefore two little bronze equestrians from Samos were cast from the same original theoretical account ( Samos, Arch. Mus. ) , as were two bronze kouroi ( Samos, Arch. Mus. ; and Berlin, Altes Mus. ) , the lone existent difference between the latter being that the left leg of one of them was inscribed by the dedicator, Smicrus. To project a bronze statue, the Greeks took piece-moulds from a basic theoretical account, and lined them with wax to do a thin-walled wax working theoretical account, which was usually produced in subdivisions and so pieced together. After seting the wax limbs and modeling and carving the surface inside informations, the artist/technician dismantled the working theoretical account. The piece-moulds could be reused to organize extra wax working theoretical accounts when more than one bronze was to be cast from the same basic theoretical account. The single subdivisions of the statue were invested individually in clay molds, and baked-to dry the clay and melt out the wax. Following, liquefied bronze was carried from the nearby furnace, poured into funnels, and therefore channelled into the molds to project the statue subdivisions. These could be joined automatically or metallurgically. For case, the Delphi Charioteer ‘s caput, weaponries, and trunks were socketed in topographic point, whereas his lower legs and pess appear to hold been hard-soldered to a home base hidden by the hem of the columnar skirt ( 478 or 474 BCE ; Delphi Mus. ; height 1.8 m/6 ft ) Completing touches included inset Ag dentition, a Ag meander in the filet adhering his caput, and lifelike stone eyes encased in Cu ciliums. Workshops for the production of statues and of figurines surely existed near many of the sanctuaries in which the images were dedicated, though little bronzes could besides hold been carried into a sanctuary from an wholly different venue. The usage of duplicative procedures further complicates the inquiry of regional manners, since this type of production meant that moulds taken from one basic theoretical account could hold been transported elsewhere for making waxes and so projecting them in bronze. Harmonizing to ancient literary beginnings, the tradition of raising statues of masters in athletic competitions began in the 3rd one-fourth of the sixth century. Pausanias makes it clear that such statues were non votive offerings, but that they were ‘given to the masters in the games ‘ ( 5. 21. 1 ) . The earliest such statues were made of wood, but bronze shortly came to be preferred, no uncertainty because of the freedom of motion this lightweight medium afforded. A new drift towards naturalism in sculpture had begun good before the terminal of the sixth century. The standing frontal male statue is reduced to life size, becomes somewhat asymmetrical, and is more realistic. The early 5th-century marble Kritios Boy ( Athens, Acropolis Mus. ; present height 1.17 m/3 foot 10 in ) is a all right illustration of this tendency towards naturalism. His caput turns a small to his right, his hips and shoulders displacement because he is really standing on one leg and loosen uping the other 1. His spinal column curves, his flesh appears soft and vernal, the Archaic smiling is gone, and the eyes were one time inlaid to impart pragmatism to the male child ‘s regard. In bronze excessively, the semblance of pragmatism was increased by inlaid eyes with Cu ciliums, Cu lips and mammillas, Ag dentitions, and silver fingernails. There is besides grounds that the surfaces of some bronzes made during the Classical period were painted or patinated. Our few preserved big bronze statues make a dramatic contrast to the many extant figurines, whose complex motions and pronounced tortuosity make them strongly 3-dimensional. Differences between the types represented in figurines and in large-scale bronzes are likely due more to independent stylistic traditions than to differences in methods of production. The early Classical bronze Artemision God ( Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) is a convincingly realistic exclusion to this regulation. He takes a large measure and draws back his arm to hurtle a arm, writhing somewhat at the waist, left arm forward to equilibrate himself. And yet his basically planar silhouette is non far removed from the stiffly striding aggressor of the Archaic period, with a frontal trunk and weaponries and legs in profile. Myron ‘s celebrated early Classical bronze discus-thrower does non last, but the literary beginnings give a clear sense of a immature adult male ‘who bends down†¦ turning toward the manus that holds the discus, and somewhat flexing the other articulatio genus, as if to unbend up with the throw ‘ ( Lucian, Philopseudes 18 ) . In add-on, there are a figure of ancient reproductions of the statue, including two erected by the Roman Emperor Hadrian at his state Villa in Tivoli ( Vatican Mus. ; London, BM ) . Although jocks might be represented engaged in athletics, the more common 5th-century type was that of standing bronze jocks, heroes, or generals developed from the Archaic kouros. Statuettes likely reflect large-scale images of the same types. The accent that bookmans have placed upon regional Centres of production during the Archaic period is replaced by a inclination to tie in Classical statues with the names of peculiar creative persons who are known from the ancient literary testimonia. The over-life-size Riace Bronzes, for case, have been given at least eight attributions-to Onatas, Myron, Phidias, or the ‘school ‘ of Phidias, Polyclitus, or a ‘follower ‘ of Polyclitus, Attica, or south Italy. Whoever made them, the statues are rare endurances of the Classical manner, for most ancient bronzes were finally melted down so that the metal could be reused, frequently for arms and ammo. The Riace Bronzes, their caputs turned, musculuss flexed, and pess bearing unequal weight, represent the realistic yet perfected Classical manner ( Reggio Calabria, Mus. Nazionale ) . A individual basic theoretical account was seemingly used for both of these bare statues ( height 1.97 and 1.98 m/6 foot 6 in ) , and their overall similarities are unmistakable, but each version was individualized in the wax before being dramatis personae, ensuing in important differences, peculiarly in the faces, face funguss, and hair. They were meant to be seen as persons, though both images have idealized organic structures, and both were one time helmeted and equipped with shield and lance. In the first century ad, Pliny estimated that a major metropolis or sanctuary might incorporate about 3,000 statues. On the strength of lasting statue-bases, we can presume that the standing bare male was the most common type of image. Commemorative statues of jocks, as of military heroes and political leaders, were to be seen in every metropolis and wherever competitions were held in Greece: some in action, others merely standing, naked as in competition, one manus raised to the master ‘s garland, or keeping a strigil or a palm-branch. Three different groups of marble pedimental figures were carved for the temple of the nymph Aphaia on the island of Aegina near Athens ( Munich, Glyptothek ) . They include a scope of manners produced during a 20-year period ( 500 – 480 BCE ) , at the clip when Greece was under changeless menace of coup d'etat by the Persian Empire. The to the full 3-dimensional figures in these luxuriant conflict scenes are carved to one graduated table, with the exclusion of the colossal images of Athena supervising the conflict from the Centre of each pediment. Indeed, the many places that can be used for a conflict scene are good suited to the triangular confines of a pediment. Two fallen warriors illustrate the differences between the earlier and later manners. The earlier one reaches about jauntily for the sticker stuck between his ribs, his face adorned with an Archaic smiling ; while the ulterior one is clearly deceasing, his caput set, his drooping organic structure supported merely b y the carpus still fixed in its shield-strap. The extended usage of added bronze characteristics on these figures recall mentions in the ancient literary beginnings to a celebrated bronze metal that was produced on this island. Pliny relates that the Athenians introduced a new usage when in the late sixth century BCE they set up two statues marking existent people, and did so at public disbursal ( Natural History 34. 17 ) . The bronzy Tyrant-Slayers stood in the Agora at Athens until they were carried off by the Persians in the class of destructing the metropolis in 480 BCE. Just three old ages subsequently, the Athenians set up another brace of striding assailing Tyrant-Slayers. Finally, Alexander the Great ( 336 – 323 BCE ) or one of his replacements reclaimed the original brace, and put them beside the others in the metropolis Centre ( ancient marble transcripts in Naples, Mus. Arch. Naz. ) . The rise of the Classical manner is normally dated to 480 BCE, when the Persians were resolutely repulsed from Greece, ten old ages after their first lay waste toing invasion of the Grecian mainland. Contemplations of the Grecian triumphs over the savages may be seen in the pick of fabulous subjects-Greeks get the better ofing non-Greeks-that continued to be used for architectural sculpture during the fifth century. Well-groomed fine-looking Grecian young persons fight wild-haired ripening centaurs in the early Classical marble sculptures from the west pediment of the temple of Zeus at Olympia ( c. 460 BCE ; Olympia Mus. ) . Relationships between organic structures and curtain are explored, complicated groups of figures are portrayed in overdone actions, and persons reveal a modicum of emotional response to physical quandaries. In blunt contrast to this manic activity, the quiet figures in the east pediment are fixing for the chariot race between Pelops and Oenom & A ; auml ; us, who se fatal result would hold been known by every visitant to Olympia. After the race, Pelops was to go the eponymic swayer of southern Greece, the Peloponnese. Phidias designed far more idealised sculptures to decorate the Parthenon in Athens, whose edifice histories, inscribed in rock, day of the month the undertaking between 448 and 432 BCE. By their huge Numberss, and by the scope of topics illustrated, these sculptures make a public statement about the glorification of the metropolis. They are used today to represent the high Classical manner. The 92 metopes around the exterior of the edifice represent struggles between Greeks and Trojans, Amazons, and centaurs, and between the Greek Gods and the giants ( 447 – 442 BCE ; London, BM ) . Above the metopes, the marble figures in the pediments, carved to the full in the unit of ammunition, illustrate the birth of Athena, the metropolis ‘s eponymic goddess ( on the E ) , and the competition between Athena and Poseidon over the metropolis of Athens ( on the West ) ( 438 – 432 BCE ; London, BM ) . These monolithic figures are vernal and idealised, their significance describ ed without emotion, but in footings of inordinately expressive curtain and of perfected anatomy. Within the colonnade, the idealised figures of the frieze around the temple ‘s cella stand for a non-mythological event, one that was familiar to all Athenians-they move in ranks around the edifice in the Panathenaic emanation to honour Athena ‘s birthday, the caput of the emanation holding before a relaxed gathering of sitting Olympic divinities ( 442 – 438 BCE ; London, BM ) . The colossal chryselephantine ( gold and tusk ) statue of Athena Parthenos ( the virgin ) that stood within the temple, known today merely from ancient descriptions and small-scale reproductions, exemplified the stateliness, sublimity, and self-respect of Phidias ‘s work ( Dionysius of Halicarnassus, Isocrates 3 ) . In fact, chryselephantine, the richest and most coveted stuff for cult statues, was a forte of Phidias, as were prodigious statues and cult images. His most celebrated work in this medium was a immense statue of Zeus for the temple of Zeus at Olympia, which was greatly admired, and came to be hailed as one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient universe. Both Phidias and Polyclitus of Argos, the best-known creative persons of their twenty-four hours, worked in chryselephantine, bronze, and marble. And, as with the edifice histories for the Parthenon, records for the production of Phidias ‘s colossal bronze Athena for the Athenian Acropolis ( Athens, Epigraphical Mus. ) indicate that a successful creative person was non entirely responsible for the originative thought behind a statue, but besides hired the staff and supervisors for the completion of the undertaking. Indeed, in ancient Greece, one word-techn & A ; eacute ; -was used to intend art, trade, and accomplishment. Polyclitus, a coeval of both Myron and Phidias, was the most famed sculpturer of his clip. His forte was athletic statuary, and he was extensively praised for his bronze statue of the Doryphorus ( Spear-Bearer ) , which, like his treatise on that work, he called the Canon, whence comes the modern usage of that word. Pliny says that Polyclitus was a challenger of Myron, both in his pick of Delian bronze over Aeginetan bronze and in the manner of statuary which he produced ( for two of the legion Roman marble transcripts, see Naples, Mus. Arch. Naz. , and Minneapolis, Inst. of Arts ) . Indeed, Polyclitus worked chiefly in bronze, and he was said to hold perfected the accomplishment of sculpture ( Pliny, Natural History 34. 55 ) . Of peculiar involvement to bookmans has been his concern with symmetria, as explained in his treatise and exemplified in the Doryphorus. Though both the book and the statue are lost, symmetria seemingly refers to the precise mathematical proportions of the par ts of a statue to one another. The proportions developed by Polyclitus were considered so right that other creative persons copied them infinitely, in the hope that they excessively would accomplish flawlessness in their work. There are many ancient reproductions of the Doryphorus, in the signifier of full statues and of flops, in marble and in bronze, non to advert the many athletic statues and portrayal statues which emulated that celebrated work. The troubles inherent in modern efforts to measure an original from a reproduction are apparent when one considers that the ‘copy ‘ is frequently in another signifier or another medium than the original. For illustration, a bronzy caput cast atop a herm and found in a Roman Villa is unmistakably that of the Doryphorus, but it is inscribed ‘Apollonius, the boy of Archius, the Athenian, made this ‘ ( Naples, Mus. Arch. Naz. ) . Praxiteles and Lysippus are the two names that dominate histories of 4th-century sculpture. The closest we can come to the lost plants of Praxiteles is through the about 60 lasting versions of his celebrated Aphrodite of Cnidus, said to hold been the first statue of a bare adult female of all time made, and to hold been modelled after Praxiteles ‘ lover Phryne. The painted marble statue of Aphrodite was, harmonizing to Pliny, one of two that Praxiteles carved, the other being draped, following tradition. The people of Cos chose the cloaked image, but the Cnidians purchased the nude, which became far more celebrated ( Natural History 36. 20 ) . The large-scale reproductions show a plump but less-than-feminine bare adult female half-heartedly covering her venereal country with one manus, while the other Lashkar-e-Taibas slip her cast-off garment, which cascades over a hydria ( water-jar ) standing at her side ( e.g. Vatican Mus. ) . The statues of Erotes, of Apollo murdering a li zard, of lecher, and others that have been ascribed to Praxiteles on the strength of the literary testimonia are all debatable, as is the Hermes with the babe Dionysus ( Olympia Mus. ) , which was one time widely thought to be an original work by the creative person, but which is far more likely to be a creative activity of Hellenistic or Roman day of the month. Lysippus was the tribunal portrait painter for Alexander the Great, and his celebrated portrayal of the swayer, though based upon the tradition of heroic standing figures, is a typical type. The accent that Lysippus is said to hold placed upon the bend of Alexander ‘s caput, on the regard, and on the sense of power, with one manus outstretched, the other raised to keep a spear, were common features of honorary statues produced during the Hellenistic and Roman periods. For much of the fourth century, the production of bronze statuary was dominated by the Sicyonian workshop of Lysippus and his household. Lysippus produced non merely portrayals of Alexander and his friends, but besides works like an Apoxyomenus ( athlete grating himself with a strigil: one Roman marble version in Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) , a bibulous miss playing a flute, a twosome of runing groups, assorted chariot groups, a portrayal of Socrates, and a lecher. There is no inquiry that his manner was really influential, and he was besides a fecund creative person. Literary mentions to his holding worked straight from nature, therefore bettering the art of portrayal, are likely derived from streamlined production processes that were developed in the household metalworks, which would hold both improved similitudes and speeded production, to run into the turning demand for his popular bronzes. The Mausoleum at Halicarnassus ( modern Bodrum ) was the name given the grave of Mausolus, the Persian governor of Caria ( d. 353 BCE ) . The immense rectangular edifice, crowned by a prodigious four-horse chariot keeping portrayal statues of Mausolus and his married woman ( height c. 3 m/10 foot ; London, BM ) , was one of the Seven Wonders of the ancient universe. The graven friezes decorating the edifice or its dais were carved by some of the great creative persons of the 4th century-Scopas, Bryaxis, Timotheus, and Leochares. Authorship can non now be assigned with any certainty to lasting frieze-blocks, but the topics depicted did non go from established traditions, and included a centauromachy, an Amazonomachy, and a chariot race. ( Many of the surviving sculptures are now in London, BM. ) Alexander ‘s regulation ( d. 323 BCE ) marks the terminal of the Classical period. The Hellenic period lasted until Octavian ‘s licking of Antony at Actium in 31 BCE. The Classical stylistic tradition continued, as did the demand for public memorials and spiritual dedications. The Attalid dynasty at Pergamum in Mysia ( Asia Minor ) commemorated decisive triumphs over the savages ( the Gauls ) in the 170s and 160s BCE by constructing an communion table to Zeus on their acropolis which was decorated with a frieze exemplifying the conflict between the Gods and the giants. Carved in high and dramatic alleviation, the frieze is a consummate illustration of the alleged ‘Hellenistic Baroque ‘ manner ( Berlin, Pergamum Mus. ) . The dramatic action, the emotional looks, the dramatic chiaroscuro of the deeply carved inside informations, the detonation of figures beyond the boundaries of the frieze, and the multiple textures of wings, graduated tables, curtain, and flesh , do these reliefs a circuit de force, intriguing for their unexpected and thorough inside informations. But the topic and the groupings of figures are non wholly advanced: they are besides a witting remembrance of the 5th-century Parthenon in Athens, with its pointed mentions to the Greeks ‘ mob of the savages ( the Persians ) in 480 BCE. Here excessively, Athena was the defender of the metropolis. Pergamum, like Athens, was a cultural capital, and its library was 2nd merely to the great library in Alexandria: the Gigantomachy is encyclopaedic and all participants are included, their names inscribed for those who might be unsure of the iconography. At the same clip, new types of statues and new manners were introduced to fulfill the quickly turning market for statuary among private proprietors. Those who had seen Lysippus ‘ portrayals of Alexander wanted their ain portrayals cast. As the market grew, people came to desire statues for their places and gardens. There were statues for everyone, for every context. Popular figure types could be modified to accommodate a peculiar demand or desire, but images that were one of a sort were besides available. A purchaser could take a subject for a peculiar context, or purchase an Archaizing kouros, a reproduction of the celebrated Aphrodite of Cnidus, or a more modern-day image of Aphrodite seting a aureate necklace. Certain popular types, like the kiping Eros, had such broad entreaty that discrepancies were produced in bronze, marble, and terracotta, in all sizes, and were sold all over the Mediterranean, Europe, Egypt, and Asia Minor. Deities that were represented were non needfully devotional, and new 1s were introduced to suit new involvements. Aphrodite at her lavatory was widely sold, as were lechers, nymphs, Hermaphrodites, Hypnus, Pan, the Eastern boy-god Attis, and the Egyptians Isis and Horus/Harpocrates. The ordinary, the alien, and the grotesque gained in popularity: aliens, amusing histrions, and street people. There were bronzy images of celebrated philosophers, and of people dancing, stooping, wrestle, and sleeping, including the immature, old, malnourished, and deformed. In bronze, cosmetic inside informations were emphasized, patination and picture were common, and characteristics such as eyes, dentitions, lips, mammillas, filets, and curtain decorations were really frequently in laid in Cu, Ag, and niello. Major Hellenistic Centres of production included Egypt, Asia Minor, and Syria, in add-on to Greece proper. Rome became a major market, and some Grecian craftsmen established workshops in Italy. Such a widespread Koine grew up that troubles in set uping chronology and in acknowledging regional differences among plants produced in the Hellenistic/early Roman period are host. Stylistic dating is impossible, for Hellenistic plants may be versions of Classical or Archaic works or genres. Two shipwrecks dating to the early first century BCE give a good sense of the trade at that clip. Both went down along the path between Greece to Italy, and both were found by sponge fishermen. A ship found off the island of Anticythera was transporting assorted marble and bronzy sculptures, runing in day of the month from the fourth century BCE to about 100 BCE. The marbles include a Hercules of the comparatively common ‘Farnese ‘ type ( see Farnese Hercules ) , the first illustration of whic h has been ascribed by bookmans to Lysippus, and two statues of Aphrodite, two of Hermes, and a Zeus, an Apollo, Achilles, Odysseus, an oil-pourer, Equus caballuss, seated work forces, a helmeted adult male, young persons, and terpsichoreans, possibly all of them from popular production lines ( discoveries are in Athens, Nat. Arch. Mus. ) . The 2nd ship, discovered off the seashore of modern Tunisia, contained a huge lading of luxury points. There were marble craters ( blending bowls ) and candelabrum, statuary, flops, alleviations, column capitals and bases, and 60 to 70 marble column shafts. The bronzes included statuary and furnishings-a statue of a winged Eros, a caput of Dionysus on a herm ( rectangular shaft ) , and big figurines of Eros playing a lyre, of three dancing midget, a lecher, an histrion, Hermes, and a Canis familiaris. There were hanging lamps, in the signifier of hermaphroditic figures, a figure of vass, a mirror, and the bronze legs and adjustments for more than 20 dining sofas ( discoveries are in Tunis, Mus. National du Bardo ) . The ladings of these two ships illustrate the scope of marketable types and manners of images that were being produced in workshops throughout the Mediterranean during the late Hellenistic period.

The works and life of Archimedes

The Great Mechantc Not much is known about Archimede's life. He was born in Syracuse on the eastern coast of Sicily. His father was an astronomer named Feidias. His family was probably quite prosperous, despite many contrary beliefs and opinions,as he was accompanied by servants wherever he went and also travelled, which at that time was very costly.Unlike different spiritual men of his time,he did not travel to other countries, except one, and that the city of Alexandria in Egypt, where at the famous nstitution,Musaeum of Alexandria,he consorted with famous scientists like Conon the Samian,Dositheos,Eratosthenes of Cyrene and others with whom he kept regular contact with,by sending his work to them and asking for their opinion before it was published. The exact time of his stay in Alexandria can only be approximately identified,and that between 250-240 bc.During his stay he made a remarkable discovery:he invented the screw,a pumping machine,whose practical spread was so great that i t was used throughout the known world,and is still used today for pumping liquids and other fossil elements . Basically Archimedes's machine was a helical serface around an axis inside a tube. By rotation of the shaft this incredible invention could transfer water from a lower to a higher point. The first recorded use of such an object is in a text by Athenaeus of Naucratis,where he describes of an enormous ship that was designed by Archias of Corinth for the tyrant of Siracuse, Hiero ll.Since this was one of the biggest ships in its time it would be inevitable that it would take on water. Therefore, Archimedes's screw was used to pump the water back into the sea. It is unclear whether or not Archimedes designed this pump for the use on the hip but it is widely thought that the great mathematician invented such a tool to help Egyptians maneuver water from lower land to higher for watering the fields. This invention has survived the winds of time and is still used today,most recently applyed at draining parts of land in the Netherlands that were underwater and also for stableizing the tower of Pisa in 2001.According to information from Arab sources noted by A. Favaro, Archimedes probably made another trip to Egypt, during which he designed and executed several projects on water management of the river Nile, projects which are reported by Arab uthors. Beyond these signs though,essentially we know that Archimedes travelled to Alexandria only once and no other time, since, according to all sources the greatest part of his life he spent in his hometown of Syracuse, where he came up with all his theoretical or mechanical discoveries.On the return to his homeland Archimedes made another very important discovery. Hiero wanted a golden crown to be made for him so he asked a goldsmith and gave him 772 grams of gold with a mandate to fulfill his wish. And so, the wasnt produced from Just gold but had another material inside. This is when Hiero,called Archimedes and asked him to examine the crown without deforming it and find out whether or not gold was the only element that assembled the crown. Archimedes tried for a long time, to solve the problem.Then finaly one day when he was bathing,probably in a barel,he realised the displacement of water when he entered the bath. ,That is when he realised this was directly proportional to the problem of the authenticity of the gold crown, Vitruvius states that Archimedes Jumped out of his bath and ran out shouting : â€Å"Eureka , eureka , † Basically,what is now known today as Archimedes's Principle,states that the olume of displaced fluid is equal to the volume of the submerged object. ln more general terms an two objects with the same volume and same mass have different density between each other.Archimedes carried out his experiment by getting a scale and putting the crown on one end and the equivelent of gold on the other. Then when submerged in water if the crown is made of Just gold the scale w ould balance if not it would tip more towards either side. One of Archimedes's more controversal discoveries is the harnis of sunlight into a heat ray using a solar mirror. Legend has it that that when Siracuse was under siege y the Romans the structure was used to burn the Romans ships.The solar mirror , was in fact not one mirror but many mirrors together,in which solar energy was accumulated and then converted into very high heat and when directed to a target,it would cause it to catch fire . Although there were historical references to the mechanism ,made by Plutarch , Lucian , Galen , Efstathios and evidence for the use of this weapon in one of the sieges of Constantinople, the existence of this mechanism was questioned by many, with Ren © Descartes being one of them and because of that,was regarded a myth .The fact that Archimedes had indeed discovered the properties of mirrors is demonstrated by a book by German professor Hop â€Å"History of Physics which states that in 1 492 in Venice , the Greek professor George Vallas had in his library a book by Archimedes called ‘Mirror' , but later lost. So, if Archimedes didn't know enough information about mirrors and was not sure about putting them into practice , why would he write a whole book about it? Later researchers tried to make the experiment, using materials known in the time of Archimedes , but failed or succeeded partially.

Biology article reflection essays

Biology article reflection essays The article, The Biologist Who Extends Life Spans, is an interview with biologist Cynthia Kenyon on the subject of extending life spans. She has extended the life span of nematodes, as they had lived for more than 125 days, about six times more than the usual life span of the worms, which is around 20 days. Surprisingly, the worms stayed robust almost until they died. She controls aging in worms by manipulating the gene daf-2, which encodes a hormone receptor. Changing daf-2 produces large increases in life span as daf-2 protein controls the activities of many other genes, each of which contributes in its own way to longevity. For instance, some genes function as antioxidants and stop the damage done to cells by free radicals. Some genes make proteins called chaperones which help damaged proteins refold correctly. Also, other genes have an antimicrobial function by preventing the worm from getting infections. Kenyon even thinks there is a possibility of extending the life span of humans by using these regulator genes. She commented that the difference between the life spans of different species might boil down to the activity of master regulator genes, like the daf-2 receptor. The hormone receptor is another important gene, a master transcription factor called daf-16 that binds the many downstream genes and turns them on and off. This article relates to Biology as it discusses the topic about life span through the manipulation of genes. Once the research is successful, it will also be possible for humans to attain long life or even immortality. One would really be set into thinking if the whole idea of extending is ethical. On the medical side, extending life span is a whole new approach to disease, to health care. This is so as age is a risk factor for an enormous number of diseases, and if one can control aging, they can have beneficial effects on a whole wide range of diseases. ...

Robinson Name Meaning and Origin

Robinson Name Meaning and Origin The most likely origin of this surname is son of Robin, although it may also derive from the Polish word rabin, meaning rabbi. Robinson is the 27th most popular surname in the United States according to data from the 2000 census. Surname Origin: English, JewishAlternate Surname Spellings: Robeson, Robison, Robins Famous Robinsons: Jackie Robinson - first African American Major League Baseball playerJoan Robinson - British economistSmokey Robinson - American singer, songwriter, producer Genealogy Resources If youre interested in learning more about the surname or connecting with others who share the last name, the following resources can help: Robinson DNA Surname Project: This DNA study tested the DNA of numerous Robinson family lines in the hopes of making genealogical connections.Robinson Family Genealogy Forum: Search this popular genealogy forum for the Robinson surname to find others who might be researching your ancestors, or post your own Robinson query.FamilySearch: Find records, queries, and lineage-linked family trees posted for the Robinson surname and its variations.Robinson Surname and Family Mailing Lists: RootsWeb hosts several free mailing lists for researchers of the Robinson surname. Sources Cottle, Basil. Penguin Dictionary of Surnames. Baltimore, MD: Penguin Books, 1967.Menk, Lars. A Dictionary of German Jewish Surnames. Avotaynu, 2005.Beider, Alexander. A Dictionary of Jewish Surnames from Galicia. Avotaynu, 2004.Hanks, Patrick and Flavia Hodges. A Dictionary of Surnames. Oxford University Press, 1989.Hanks, Patrick. Dictionary of American Family Names. Oxford University Press, 2003.Smith, Elsdon C. American Surnames. Genealogical Publishing Company, 1997.

Critical Thinking in Marketing Literature review

Critical Thinking in Marketing - Literature review Example A firm on the other hand is defined as a commercial organization, which provides services and products to consumers with expectations of getting profits in return. Market orientation is widely utilized in contemporary marketing. It entails analyzing competitors’ strategies and their impact on the public. Firms should redirect all resources toward achieving a common goal to ensure success of the market orientations. Marketing orientation mainly focuses on supplying products, which are made according to the needs, requirements, and desire of the customers in question. According to Jaworski &Kohli (1993), marketing orientation is firm’s generation of intelligence based on market strategies and focus on the need of the customers. The customers’ demands are either future or current. The intelligence should be disseminated to all other departments in the firm and the company of firm should be able to respond to it. During the industrial revolution to around sixty years ago, companies’ focus was based on utilizing the economies of scale and decreasing the cost of production. Products of high quality were less available during such periods and the firms’ main point of focus was to produce products in large quantities. Marketing elements such as design were ignored. The changes were due to the rise of capitalism created by the increasing number of middle class. After the Second World War, the markets became saturated with all types of products. The selling of the products declined. However, the companies adopted a model that focused on the making products and then supplying them to consumers, the model was called sales orientation (Harris, 2008). Despite the changes in strategies, customers were not involved in the process of developing products. Early 1970s Theodore Levitt a Harvard professor with other academicians criticized the sales orientation model and argued that